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From astragali used in 3000 BC to the first documented wagers in Rome and China. This article examines the historical and archaeological proof of early gambling.

From Knucklebones to Coins The Historical Roots of Human Wagering =================================================================

The earliest documented form of staking is not on sports, but on games of chance using cubic dice. Archaeological evidence points to a six-sided die, unearthed in Northern Iraq, dating to approximately 3000 BCE. Similarly, a board game set, complete with dice, was discovered at the Shahr-e Sukhteh site in Iran from a comparable period. These artifacts predate the widespread use of astragali, the knucklebones of sheep, which served as four-sided dice in Ancient Greece and Rome for millennia.

These primordial games of chance were intrinsically linked to divination. The Rigveda, a collection of Sanskrit hymns composed before 1500 BCE, contains passages lamenting the ruin brought by dicing, indicating a well-established, if problematic, practice. The Minoan 'Kernos' stone from Crete, a circular artifact with numerous depressions, is theorized to be a board for a game of chance tied to agricultural offerings, blending stakes with ritual. The outcome was often seen as a direct message from the gods, not merely a result of random probability.

Organized staking on athletic contests appears much later. While spectators at the Greek Olympic Games, founded in 776 BCE, certainly placed private wagers, there was no formalized system. The Romans established a more structured approach, with widespread staking on chariot races at the Circus Maximus, a practice documented in poems by Juvenal and Martial. The first state-sanctioned lotteries emerged in China's Han Dynasty around 200 BCE, used as a civic finance tool to fund state projects, including portions of the Great Wall.

Tracing the World's Oldest Wagers

Examine six-sided dice crafted from sheep knucklebones, known as astragali, unearthed in Mesopotamian tombs from approximately 3000 BCE. These artifacts represent the earliest physical proof of games of chance. Written evidence appears in the Indian Rigveda, a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns composed around 1500 BCE, which contains passages describing the financial ruin caused by dicing.

In China, clay slips resembling modern keno tickets have been discovered dating to 200 BCE. Historical analysis suggests these lotteries may have helped finance state works, including sections of the Great Wall. The practice of casting lots for property was common among Greek and Roman soldiers, a custom recorded in classical literature. Roman society even codified rules around such activities through laws like the *Lex Titia* and *Lex Cornelia*, which restricted contests of fortune to the Saturnalia festival.

Archaeological finds provide further context. The Royal Game of Ur, a board game set from ancient Sumeria (c. 2600 BCE), included tetrahedral dice. The game's mechanics, involving movement based on dice throws, point toward a structured contest where participants staked outcomes. This board game, found in the Royal Tombs of Ur, is one of the oldest complete examples of its kind, indicating organized risk-taking was part of early high society.

From Knucklebones to Chariots: Uncovering the First Documented Bets

The earliest physical proof of risk-taking for gain comes from polished sheep knucklebones, or astragali, used in games of fortune. Archaeological findings confirm their presence in Sumerian sites around 3500 BC. These four-sided bones functioned as primordial dice, serving dual purposes in divination rituals and straightforward contests of chance.

Cubic, six-sided dice emerged in Mesopotamia by 3000 BC, with a set discovered in the tomb of Bur-Sin of Ur. The Indian epic, the Mahabharata, provides a powerful literary account of a high-stakes dice game. The narrative describes a king who forfeits his entire kingdom, his family, and his freedom on throws of the dice, illustrating the profound social impact of such speculations.

The Greeks integrated financial stakes with athletic competitions. While the Olympic Games remained sacred, lesser athletic events frequently involved wagers on the outcomes. Greek pottery from the 6th century BC depicts scenes of soldiers, including the heroes Achilles and Ajax, engaged in board games, indicating the prevalence of such diversions even during military campaigns.

Roman society organized public speculation on a massive scale, centered on the chariot races in the Circus Maximus. Citizens placed huge sums on one of four professional factions: the Reds, Whites, Blues, and Greens. This activity was structured, involving professional bookmakers known as argentarii. Roman legal frameworks, like the Digest of Justinian, prohibited most games of chance but made specific exceptions for wagers placed on displays of skill and valor, such as chariot racing.

The Mechanics of Pre-Modern Wagers: Setting Odds and Settling Debts

Terms for a pre-modern venture were negotiated directly between the principals. Odds were expressed as simple, tangible ratios, such as “three of my amphorae of wine against your silver denarius”. The perceived skill of a competitor, the lineage of a horse, or the reputation of a gladiator directly influenced the proposed stakes. A stakeholder, a trusted neutral party, frequently held the pledged items to prevent disputes over the prize's value or existence after the event concluded.

Settlement of a lost contention relied primarily on two mechanisms: personal honor and physical collateral. For the aristocracy, failing to pay a gentleman's agreement resulted in social ruin, a far greater penalty than the financial loss. For most other arrangements, the stakes themselves served as the settlement. The victor simply collected the pledged goods–be it livestock, weaponry, or land deeds–from the stakeholder. This system eliminated the need for currency and the problem of a debtor refusing to pay.

Roman law provided a formal recourse through a procedure known as sponsio, where a solemn promise to pay could be legally enforced in court for significant sums. Outside of such legal frameworks, enforcement was direct and often violent. A defaulting party could expect coercion from the winner or their associates. In the most dire circumstances, individuals would pledge their own freedom, entering indentured servitude to satisfy a significant loss. The pledge was not on a future payment, but on a tangible, immediate consequence.

Ancient Games of Chance You Can Still Play Today

Acquire a physical replica of The Royal Game of Ur to experience a 4,600-year-old contest of fortune and strategy. Many pastimes of great antiquity, which combined skill with random outcomes, remain accessible. You can find or reconstruct them with minimal materials.